Modeling Health Care Data

import sys
import os

from scipy import stats
from datetime import datetime, date
import pandas as pd
import numpy as np
from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier
from sklearn.ensemble import VotingClassifier
from sklearn.linear_model import LogisticRegression
from sklearn.svm import SVC
from sklearn.linear_model import LinearRegression
from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split


import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
import seaborn as sns
import statsmodels.api as sm
from sklearn import datasets, linear_model
from sklearn.metrics import mean_squared_error, r2_score
from sklearn import metrics
from sklearn.model_selection import cross_val_score

from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split, cross_val_score, cross_val_predict
from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier, VotingClassifier, GradientBoostingClassifier
from sklearn.linear_model import LogisticRegression
from sklearn.svm import SVC, LinearSVC
from sklearn.neighbors import KNeighborsClassifier
from sklearn.pipeline import make_pipeline
import xgboost as xgb


%matplotlib inline
plt.style.use("fivethirtyeight")
sns.set_context("notebook")

from imblearn.under_sampling import RandomUnderSampler
from imblearn.over_sampling import SMOTE

from sklearn.linear_model import LogisticRegression
from sklearn.model_selection import train_test_split
from sklearn import preprocessing

Import DF

url = 'https://raw.githubusercontent.com/davidrkearney/colab-notebooks/main/datasets/strokes_training.csv'
df = pd.read_csv(url, error_bad_lines=False)
df.info()

<class 'pandas.core.frame.DataFrame'>
RangeIndex: 43400 entries, 0 to 43399
Data columns (total 12 columns):
 #   Column             Non-Null Count  Dtype  
---  ------             --------------  -----  
 0   id                 43400 non-null  int64  
 1   gender             43400 non-null  object 
 2   age                43400 non-null  float64
 3   hypertension       43400 non-null  int64  
 4   heart_disease      43400 non-null  int64  
 5   ever_married       43400 non-null  object 
 6   work_type          43400 non-null  object 
 7   Residence_type     43400 non-null  object 
 8   avg_glucose_level  43400 non-null  float64
 9   bmi                41938 non-null  float64
 10  smoking_status     30108 non-null  object 
 11  stroke             43400 non-null  int64  
dtypes: float64(3), int64(4), object(5)
memory usage: 4.0+ MB

Data Prep

df = df.drop(columns = ['id'])

# Label Encoding
for f in df.columns:
    if df[f].dtype=='object': 
        lbl = preprocessing.LabelEncoder()
        lbl.fit(list(df[f].values))
        df[f] = lbl.transform(list(df[f].values))

pct_list = []
for col in df.columns:
    pct_missing = np.mean(df[col].isnull())
    if round(pct_missing*100) >0:
        pct_list.append([col, round(pct_missing*100)])
    print('{} - {}%'.format(col, round(pct_missing*100)))

gender - 0%
age - 0%
hypertension - 0%
heart_disease - 0%
ever_married - 0%
work_type - 0%
Residence_type - 0%
avg_glucose_level - 0%
bmi - 3%
smoking_status - 0%
stroke - 0%

df = df.fillna(df.mean())

df=df.dropna()
df.info()

<class 'pandas.core.frame.DataFrame'>
Int64Index: 43400 entries, 0 to 43399
Data columns (total 11 columns):
 #   Column             Non-Null Count  Dtype  
---  ------             --------------  -----  
 0   gender             43400 non-null  int64  
 1   age                43400 non-null  float64
 2   hypertension       43400 non-null  int64  
 3   heart_disease      43400 non-null  int64  
 4   ever_married       43400 non-null  int64  
 5   work_type          43400 non-null  int64  
 6   Residence_type     43400 non-null  int64  
 7   avg_glucose_level  43400 non-null  float64
 8   bmi                43400 non-null  float64
 9   smoking_status     43400 non-null  int64  
 10  stroke             43400 non-null  int64  
dtypes: float64(3), int64(8)
memory usage: 4.0 MB

Random Forest Classifier

Feature and Target Selection

# Select feature and target variables:
X = df.drop(['stroke'], axis=1)
y = df[['stroke']]

#One-hot encode the data using pandas get_dummies
X = pd.get_dummies(X)

#rus = RandomUnderSampler(random_state=0, replacement=True)
#X_resampled, y_resampled = rus.fit_resample(X, y)
#print(np.vstack(np.unique([tuple(row) for row in X_resampled], axis=0)).shape)

X_train, X_test, y_train, y_test = train_test_split(X, y, test_size=0.3, random_state=0)
columns = X_train.columns

sm = SMOTE(random_state=1)
X_train_SMOTE, y_train_SMOTE = sm.fit_sample(X_train, y_train)

from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier
from sklearn import metrics


model = RandomForestClassifier(n_estimators=100, bootstrap=True,
                               max_features='sqrt', n_jobs=3, verbose=1, class_weight="balanced")

model.fit(X_train_SMOTE, y_train_SMOTE)

y_pred = model.predict(X_test)

<ipython-input-172-58a1a4a55e81>:8: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples,), for example using ravel().
  model.fit(X_train_SMOTE, y_train_SMOTE)
[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Using backend ThreadingBackend with 3 concurrent workers.
[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Done  44 tasks      | elapsed:    0.9s
[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Done 100 out of 100 | elapsed:    2.0s finished
[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Using backend ThreadingBackend with 3 concurrent workers.
[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Done  44 tasks      | elapsed:    0.0s
[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Done 100 out of 100 | elapsed:    0.1s finished

from sklearn.metrics import roc_auc_score

# Calculate roc auc
roc_value = roc_auc_score(y_test, y_pred)
roc_value

0.5381645695594856

print("Accuracy:",metrics.accuracy_score(y_test, y_pred))
print("Precision:",metrics.precision_score(y_test, y_pred))
print("Recall:",metrics.recall_score(y_test, y_pred))

Accuracy: 0.9531490015360983
Precision: 0.05491990846681922
Recall: 0.1085972850678733

y_pred_proba = model.predict_proba(X_test)[::,1]
fpr, tpr, _ = metrics.roc_curve(y_test,  y_pred_proba)
auc = metrics.roc_auc_score(y_test, y_pred_proba)
plt.plot(fpr,tpr,label="data 1, auc="+str(auc))
plt.legend(loc=4)
plt.show()

[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Using backend ThreadingBackend with 3 concurrent workers.
[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Done  44 tasks      | elapsed:    0.1s
[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Done 100 out of 100 | elapsed:    0.2s finished

from sklearn.metrics import precision_recall_curve
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt
from inspect import signature

precision, recall, _ = precision_recall_curve(y_test, y_pred)

plt.plot(precision,recall)
plt.xlabel('Recall')
plt.ylabel('Precision')

Text(0, 0.5, 'Precision')

# Import numpy and matplotlib
import numpy as np
import matplotlib.pyplot as plt

# Construct the histogram with a flattened 3d array and a range of bins
plt.hist(y_pred_proba.ravel())

# Add a title to the plot
plt.title('Predicted Probability of Stroke')

# Show the plot
plt.show()

len(y_pred_proba)

13020

y_pred

array([1, 0, 0, ..., 0, 0, 1])

Get feature importances for interpretability

# Get numerical feature importances
importances = list(model.feature_importances_)

# List of tuples with variable and importance
feature_importances = [(feature, round(importance, 2)) for feature, importance in zip(X, importances)]

# Sort the feature importances by most important first
feature_importances = sorted(feature_importances, key = lambda x: x[1], reverse = True)
# Print out the features and importances 
[print('Variable: {:20} Importance: {}'.format(*pair)) for pair in feature_importances];

Variable: age                  Importance: 0.44
Variable: avg_glucose_level    Importance: 0.19
Variable: bmi                  Importance: 0.15
Variable: work_type            Importance: 0.06
Variable: smoking_status       Importance: 0.05
Variable: gender               Importance: 0.03
Variable: Residence_type       Importance: 0.03
Variable: hypertension         Importance: 0.02
Variable: ever_married         Importance: 0.02
Variable: heart_disease        Importance: 0.01

plt.figure(1)
plt.title('Feature Importance')
x_values = list(range(len(importances)))
plt.barh(x_values,  importances, align='center')
plt.yticks(x_values, X)
plt.xlabel('Relative Importance')
plt.tight_layout() 

import pandas as pd
feature_importances = pd.DataFrame(model.feature_importances_,
                                   index = X_train.columns,
                                    columns=['importance']).sort_values('importance', ascending=False)

importances

[0.030891482100094805,
 0.4448331026265109,
 0.017695413344245573,
 0.009520184938617332,
 0.01937533663501595,
 0.06499114062861666,
 0.026702090192497516,
 0.18974364950033454,
 0.14563102038830425,
 0.050616579645762515]

Confusion Matrix

from sklearn.metrics import confusion_matrix
cnf_matrix = metrics.confusion_matrix(y_test, y_pred)
cnf_matrix

array([[12386,   413],
       [  197,    24]])

sns.set(font_scale=5.0)
conf_mat = confusion_matrix(y_test, y_pred)
cm_normalized = conf_mat.astype('float') / conf_mat.sum(axis=1)[:, np.newaxis]
fig, ax = plt.subplots(figsize=(30,30), dpi = 100)
sns.heatmap(cm_normalized, annot=True, cmap="Blues")
sns.set(font_scale=1)
plt.ylabel('Actual')
plt.xlabel('Predicted')
#fig.savefig('cm_augmented.png', dpi=fig.dpi, transparent=True)
plt.show()

cm_normalized

array([[0.96773185, 0.03226815],
       [0.89140271, 0.10859729]])

fig, ax = plt.subplots()
# create heatmap
sns.heatmap(pd.DataFrame(cnf_matrix), annot=True, cmap="Blues" ,fmt='g')
ax.xaxis.set_label_position("top")
plt.tight_layout()
plt.title('Confusion matrix', y=1.5)
plt.ylabel('Actual label')
plt.xlabel('Predicted label')
plt.tick_params(axis='both', which='major', labelsize=10, labelbottom = False, bottom=False, top = True, labeltop=True)

from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier
from sklearn import metrics


model = RandomForestClassifier(n_estimators=100, bootstrap=True,
                               max_features='sqrt', n_jobs=3, verbose=1, class_weight="balanced")

model.fit(X_train, y_train)

y_pred = model.predict(X_test)

<ipython-input-188-533b6710c3e5>:8: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples,), for example using ravel().
  model.fit(X_train, y_train)
[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Using backend ThreadingBackend with 3 concurrent workers.
[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Done  44 tasks      | elapsed:    0.3s
[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Done 100 out of 100 | elapsed:    0.6s finished
[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Using backend ThreadingBackend with 3 concurrent workers.
[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Done  44 tasks      | elapsed:    0.0s
[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Done 100 out of 100 | elapsed:    0.1s finished

from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier
from sklearn import metrics


model = RandomForestClassifier(n_estimators=100, bootstrap=True,
                               max_features='sqrt', n_jobs=3, verbose=1, class_weight="balanced")

model.fit(X_train_SMOTE, y_train_SMOTE)

y_pred = model.predict(X_test)

<ipython-input-189-58a1a4a55e81>:8: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples,), for example using ravel().
  model.fit(X_train_SMOTE, y_train_SMOTE)
[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Using backend ThreadingBackend with 3 concurrent workers.
[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Done  44 tasks      | elapsed:    0.8s
[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Done 100 out of 100 | elapsed:    1.9s finished
[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Using backend ThreadingBackend with 3 concurrent workers.
[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Done  44 tasks      | elapsed:    0.0s
[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Done 100 out of 100 | elapsed:    0.1s finished

print("Accuracy:",metrics.accuracy_score(y_test, y_pred))
print("Precision:",metrics.precision_score(y_test, y_pred))
print("Recall:",metrics.recall_score(y_test, y_pred))

Accuracy: 0.9541474654377881
Precision: 0.05660377358490566
Recall: 0.1085972850678733

y_pred = model.predict_proba(X_test)[:,1]
train_proba = pd.DataFrame({'predicted_probability': y_pred})
train_proba.info()

[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Using backend ThreadingBackend with 3 concurrent workers.

<class 'pandas.core.frame.DataFrame'>
RangeIndex: 13020 entries, 0 to 13019
Data columns (total 1 columns):
 #   Column                 Non-Null Count  Dtype  
---  ------                 --------------  -----  
 0   predicted_probability  13020 non-null  float64
dtypes: float64(1)
memory usage: 101.8 KB

[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Done  44 tasks      | elapsed:    0.1s
[Parallel(n_jobs=3)]: Done 100 out of 100 | elapsed:    0.2s finished

##check whether y_train indexes are the same as X_train indexes 
same_index = y_test.index == X_test.index
same_index.all()

True

## get them into the same pandas frame
table = pd.concat([y_test.reset_index(drop=True), train_proba.reset_index(drop=True)], axis=1)
table

	stroke	predicted_probability
0	0	0.63
1	0	0.25
2	0	0.00
3	0	0.00
4	0	0.00
...	...	...
13015	0	0.00
13016	0	0.00
13017	0	0.00
13018	0	0.00
13019	1	0.70

13020 rows × 2 columns

table.stroke.value_counts()

0    12799
1      221
Name: stroke, dtype: int64

table.info()

<class 'pandas.core.frame.DataFrame'>
RangeIndex: 13020 entries, 0 to 13019
Data columns (total 2 columns):
 #   Column                 Non-Null Count  Dtype  
---  ------                 --------------  -----  
 0   stroke                 13020 non-null  int64  
 1   predicted_probability  13020 non-null  float64
dtypes: float64(1), int64(1)
memory usage: 203.6 KB

table.to_csv('../processed_csvs/healthcare_table.csv')

Cross-Validation Precision

from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier
forest_clf = RandomForestClassifier(n_estimators=100, random_state=42)

#cross validation predictions for test set
y_test_pred = cross_val_predict(forest_clf, X_test, y_test, cv=5)

print("Accuracy:",metrics.accuracy_score(y_test, y_test_pred))
print("Precision:",metrics.precision_score(y_test, y_test_pred))
print("Recall:",metrics.recall_score(y_test, y_test_pred))

/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/model_selection/_validation.py:862: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples,), for example using ravel().
  estimator.fit(X_train, y_train, **fit_params)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/model_selection/_validation.py:862: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples,), for example using ravel().
  estimator.fit(X_train, y_train, **fit_params)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/model_selection/_validation.py:862: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples,), for example using ravel().
  estimator.fit(X_train, y_train, **fit_params)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/model_selection/_validation.py:862: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples,), for example using ravel().
  estimator.fit(X_train, y_train, **fit_params)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/model_selection/_validation.py:862: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples,), for example using ravel().
  estimator.fit(X_train, y_train, **fit_params)

Accuracy: 0.9827188940092166
Precision: 0.0
Recall: 0.0

#cross validation predictions for full dataset
y_pred = cross_val_predict(forest_clf, X, y, cv=5)

/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/model_selection/_validation.py:862: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples,), for example using ravel().
  estimator.fit(X_train, y_train, **fit_params)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/model_selection/_validation.py:862: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples,), for example using ravel().
  estimator.fit(X_train, y_train, **fit_params)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/model_selection/_validation.py:862: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples,), for example using ravel().
  estimator.fit(X_train, y_train, **fit_params)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/model_selection/_validation.py:862: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples,), for example using ravel().
  estimator.fit(X_train, y_train, **fit_params)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/model_selection/_validation.py:862: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples,), for example using ravel().
  estimator.fit(X_train, y_train, **fit_params)

print("Accuracy:",metrics.accuracy_score(y, y_pred))
print("Precision:",metrics.precision_score(y, y_pred))
print("Recall:",metrics.recall_score(y, y_pred))

Accuracy: 0.9817741935483871
Precision: 0.0
Recall: 0.0

test_proba = pd.DataFrame({'predicted_probability': y_pred})
test_proba.info()

<class 'pandas.core.frame.DataFrame'>
RangeIndex: 43400 entries, 0 to 43399
Data columns (total 1 columns):
 #   Column                 Non-Null Count  Dtype
---  ------                 --------------  -----
 0   predicted_probability  43400 non-null  int64
dtypes: int64(1)
memory usage: 339.2 KB

##check whether y_test indexes are the same as X_test indexes 
same_index = y.index == X.index
same_index.all()

True

## get them into the same pandas frame
table = pd.concat([y.reset_index(drop=True), test_proba.reset_index(drop=True)], axis=1)
table

	stroke	predicted_probability
0	0	0
1	0	0
2	0	0
3	0	0
4	0	0
...	...	...
43395	0	0
43396	0	0
43397	0	0
43398	0	0
43399	0	0

43400 rows × 2 columns

table.stroke.value_counts()

0    42617
1      783
Name: stroke, dtype: int64

table.to_csv('../processed_csvs/final_model_table.csv')

5-Fold Cross Validation

from sklearn.ensemble import RandomForestClassifier
from sklearn.ensemble import VotingClassifier
from sklearn.linear_model import LogisticRegression
from sklearn.neighbors import KNeighborsClassifier
from sklearn.svm import SVC
from sklearn.naive_bayes import GaussianNB

from sklearn.metrics import accuracy_score
from sklearn.metrics import precision_score


from sklearn.model_selection import cross_val_score
models = [
    LogisticRegression(solver="liblinear", random_state=42),
    RandomForestClassifier(n_estimators=10, random_state=42),
    KNeighborsClassifier(n_neighbors = 5, metric = 'minkowski', p = 2),
    GaussianNB(),
]
CV = 5
cv_df = pd.DataFrame(index=range(CV * len(models)))
entries = []
for model in models:
  model_name = model.__class__.__name__
  accuracies = cross_val_score(model, X, y, scoring='precision', cv=CV)
  for fold_idx, accuracy in enumerate(accuracies):
    entries.append((model_name, fold_idx, accuracy))
cv_df = pd.DataFrame(entries, columns=['model_name', 'fold_idx', 'precision'])

sns.boxplot(x='model_name', y='precision', data=cv_df)
sns.stripplot(x='model_name', y='precision', data=cv_df, 
              size=8, jitter=True, edgecolor="gray", linewidth=2)
plt.xticks(rotation=45)

plt.tight_layout()
plt.show()

/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/utils/validation.py:72: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples, ), for example using ravel().
  return f(**kwargs)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/metrics/_classification.py:1221: UndefinedMetricWarning: Precision is ill-defined and being set to 0.0 due to no predicted samples. Use `zero_division` parameter to control this behavior.
  _warn_prf(average, modifier, msg_start, len(result))
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/utils/validation.py:72: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples, ), for example using ravel().
  return f(**kwargs)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/metrics/_classification.py:1221: UndefinedMetricWarning: Precision is ill-defined and being set to 0.0 due to no predicted samples. Use `zero_division` parameter to control this behavior.
  _warn_prf(average, modifier, msg_start, len(result))
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/utils/validation.py:72: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples, ), for example using ravel().
  return f(**kwargs)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/metrics/_classification.py:1221: UndefinedMetricWarning: Precision is ill-defined and being set to 0.0 due to no predicted samples. Use `zero_division` parameter to control this behavior.
  _warn_prf(average, modifier, msg_start, len(result))
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/utils/validation.py:72: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples, ), for example using ravel().
  return f(**kwargs)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/metrics/_classification.py:1221: UndefinedMetricWarning: Precision is ill-defined and being set to 0.0 due to no predicted samples. Use `zero_division` parameter to control this behavior.
  _warn_prf(average, modifier, msg_start, len(result))
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/utils/validation.py:72: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples, ), for example using ravel().
  return f(**kwargs)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/metrics/_classification.py:1221: UndefinedMetricWarning: Precision is ill-defined and being set to 0.0 due to no predicted samples. Use `zero_division` parameter to control this behavior.
  _warn_prf(average, modifier, msg_start, len(result))
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/model_selection/_validation.py:531: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples,), for example using ravel().
  estimator.fit(X_train, y_train, **fit_params)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/model_selection/_validation.py:531: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples,), for example using ravel().
  estimator.fit(X_train, y_train, **fit_params)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/metrics/_classification.py:1221: UndefinedMetricWarning: Precision is ill-defined and being set to 0.0 due to no predicted samples. Use `zero_division` parameter to control this behavior.
  _warn_prf(average, modifier, msg_start, len(result))
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/model_selection/_validation.py:531: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples,), for example using ravel().
  estimator.fit(X_train, y_train, **fit_params)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/model_selection/_validation.py:531: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples,), for example using ravel().
  estimator.fit(X_train, y_train, **fit_params)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/model_selection/_validation.py:531: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples,), for example using ravel().
  estimator.fit(X_train, y_train, **fit_params)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/model_selection/_validation.py:531: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples, ), for example using ravel().
  estimator.fit(X_train, y_train, **fit_params)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/model_selection/_validation.py:531: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples, ), for example using ravel().
  estimator.fit(X_train, y_train, **fit_params)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/model_selection/_validation.py:531: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples, ), for example using ravel().
  estimator.fit(X_train, y_train, **fit_params)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/model_selection/_validation.py:531: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples, ), for example using ravel().
  estimator.fit(X_train, y_train, **fit_params)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/model_selection/_validation.py:531: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples, ), for example using ravel().
  estimator.fit(X_train, y_train, **fit_params)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/utils/validation.py:72: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples, ), for example using ravel().
  return f(**kwargs)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/utils/validation.py:72: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples, ), for example using ravel().
  return f(**kwargs)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/utils/validation.py:72: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples, ), for example using ravel().
  return f(**kwargs)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/utils/validation.py:72: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples, ), for example using ravel().
  return f(**kwargs)
/home/david/anaconda3/lib/python3.8/site-packages/sklearn/utils/validation.py:72: DataConversionWarning: A column-vector y was passed when a 1d array was expected. Please change the shape of y to (n_samples, ), for example using ravel().
  return f(**kwargs)